Massasauga

Species information

The following is a report on progress made towards the protection and recovery of Massasauga (Carolinian and Great Lakes – St. Lawrence populations) (Sistrurus catenatus) in Ontario from 2007 to 2022, based on Ontario’s species-specific recovery policy. This report meets the legislative requirement for a review of progress under the Endangered Species Act, 2007  (ESA or “the Act”). Massasauga (Carolinian population) is listed as endangered on the Species at Risk in Ontario (SARO) List under the ESA, while Massasauga (Great Lakes – St. Lawrence populations) is listed as threatened on the (SARO) List.

The Massasauga was originally classified as a threatened species and was listed as such under the ESA when it came into force in June 2008.

The species was separated into two populations in June 2014: Massasauga (Carolinian population), which was re-classified as endangered, and Massasauga (Great Lakes – St. Lawrence population), which remained classified as threatened.

Habitat protection for this species is based on the general habitat definition in the Act. A general habitat description for Massasauga (Carolinian and Great Lakes – St. Lawrence populations) was developed in 2013 and provides greater clarity on the area of habitat protected based on the general habitat definition in the Act.

The species-specific recovery policy for Massasauga (Carolinian and Great Lakes – St. Lawrence populations), known as the Government Response Statement (GRS) was published in 2018 and includes the government’s recovery goal for the species and the actions and priorities it intends to lead or support to help achieve that goal. The GRS considers science advice provided in the recovery strategy (published in 2016), such as species biology, habitat needs, threats to survival, knowledge gaps and approaches to recovery, when developing recovery actions for the species. As legislated in the Act, the purpose of this Review is to report on progress made towards implementing the protection and recovery actions in the GRS. The review can also help identify opportunities to adjust and adapt the implementation of protection and recovery actions to achieve the recovery goal for the species.

Massasauga (Carolinian population)

Massasauga (Great Lakes - St. Lawrence population)

Further information about for Massasauga (Carolinian and Great Lakes – St. Lawrence populations), including the threats that it faces and actions being taken to help protect and recover this species is available on the Government of Ontario webpage for the Massasauga rattlesnake. A summary on the progress towards the protection and recovery of Massasauga (Carolinian and Great Lakes – St. Lawrence populations) and an annual update on the broader species at risk program (i.e. the Introduction to the 2023 Review of Progress report) is available on the Review of Progress towards the Protection and Recovery of Ontario’s Species at Risk webpage.

Snapshot: Progress towards the protection and recovery of Massasauga (Carolinian and Great Lakes – St. Lawrence populations)

Progress towards meeting the recovery goal

• The recovery goal in the Government Response Statement (GRS) for Massasauga (Carolinian population) is to increase the likelihood of securing and maintaining the current regional distribution of the species in Southern Ontario. The government supports the implementation of population management actions (e.g., augmentation through captive-breeding and release), and associated evaluation and adaptation, at the Ojibway Prairie Complex. The government supports continued investigation, evaluation, and if appropriate, implementation of population management actions (e.g., head-starting) for the Wainfleet Bog subpopulation.
• The recovery goal in the GRS for Massasauga (Great Lakes – St. Lawrence population) is to maintain self-sustaining populations across the current distribution of the species through strategic habitat management (including connectivity) and threat mitigation.
• Progress has been made towards implementing all of the government-led actions. Progress has also been made towards implementing all of the government-supported recovery objectives and all of the associated actions. Examples of progress include:
  • The development and implementation of a comprehensive recovery program for the Massasauga (Carolinian population) at Ojibway Prairie. This work, which was led by Wildlife Preservation Canada and supported through the Species at Risk Stewardship Program, has been systematically addressing most of the GRS actions for this subpopulation. These efforts include a long-term survey and monitoring program, a captive-breeding and release initiative, habitat restoration and creation, threat mitigation, and extensive outreach and education work to promote recovery and address threats such as persecution and illegal collection
  • Several projects carried out by 8Trees Inc. at Wainfleet Bog, which have included surveys and monitoring, research, and threat mitigation activities. This work has provided crucial information on species abundance and population trends and has been instrumental in reversing the recent population decline at this site
  • The implementation of threat mitigation techniques to help reduce the impact of road mortality at several sites across the range of the Massasauga (Carolinian and Great Lakes – St. Lawrence population). For example, the installation of 4 km of snake exclusion fence, four open-grate ecopassages, and six ‘brake-for snake’ signs in Killbear Provincial Park have reduced Massasauga mortality on roads and increased habitat connectivity
• Based on progress to date, the overall direction provided in the GRS should continue to guide recovery efforts for the Massasauga (Carolinian and Great Lakes – St. Lawrence population). For example, further work is required to:
  • Improve the viability of Massasauga (Carolinian population) subpopulations at Ojibway Prairie and Wainfleet Bog. This requires the continuation of ongoing population management approaches, including a captive-breeding and release program at Ojibway Prairie, as well as targeted threat mitigation techniques at Wainfleet Bog
  • Develop, implement, and evaluate best management practices to reduce the impacts of threats to the species. In the case of widespread and pervasive threats such as road mortality and climate change, this will require collaborative efforts between government, non-government organizations, researchers, stakeholders, and the public to develop and implement innovative and effective solutions at both local and landscape scales

Occurrences and distribution:

• Massasauga (Great Lakes – St. Lawrence population) is relatively widespread and locally abundant along eastern shore of Georgian Bay and on the Northern Bruce Peninsula, with an estimated range of approximately 15,600 square kilometres based on recent observations. The Natural Heritage Information Centre (NHIC) has received over 12,700 records of the species based on observations made between 1889 and 2022.
• Occurrence information for Massasauga (Great Lakes – St. Lawrence population) has been assessed at a landscape scale using 10 by 10-kilometre grid “squares” to approximate the species’ distribution. The squares were used to estimate where the species has been recently observed (i.e., has been observed within the past 20 years) as well as squares where the species is considered historical (i.e., has not been observed within the past 20 years). Since 2008, the species has been observed in 12 additional squares where it was not previously known to occur and in 40 squares that were previously considered to be historical. Additionally, nine squares have changed from extant to historical based on a lack of observations in the past 20 years.
• Massasauga (Carolinian population) has an extremely small distribution in Southern Ontario and is only found in two locations: Wainfleet Bog on the Niagara Peninsula and the Ojibway Prairie complex in the City of Windsor and Town of Lasalle. The Natural Heritage Information Centre (NHIC) has received over 949 records of the species based on observations made between 1960’s and 2022. Although there are currently two subpopulations of the species that are considered extant, there have been no observations of the species in the Ojibway Prairie complex since 2019 despite considerable search effort, suggesting that this subpopulation is functionally extirpated.

Government-supported stewardship projects:

• Through the Species at Risk Stewardship Program, the Government of Ontario has enabled its stewardship partners to conduct 59 projects (by providing $3,696,125 in funding) that have supported the protection and recovery of multiple species at risk, including Massasauga (Carolinian and Great Lakes – St. Lawrence populations. Fifty-two projects ($2,849,287) focused on multiple species at risk, including Massasauga (Carolinian and Great Lake – St. Lawrence populations, five projects ($743,422) focussed exclusively on Massasauga (Carolinian populations) and two projects ($103,416) focused exclusively on Massasauga (Great Lakes – St. Lawrence population). 
• The government’s support helped its stewardship partners to involve 2,472 individuals who volunteered 31,795 hours of their time towards protection and recovery activities for species at risk, including Massasauga (Carolinian and Great Lakes – St. Lawrence population). The estimated value of these voluntary contributions, as well as additional funding and in-kind support, is $5,890,846.
• Stewardship partners reported that through their actions 800.5 hectares of habitat were enhanced for Massasauga (Carolinian and Great Lakes – St. Lawrence population) and other species at risk that inhabit the same ecosystem.
• Stewardship partners reported providing outreach on multiple species at risk, including Massasauga (Carolinian and Great Lakes – St. Lawrence population), to 433,238 individuals.

Supporting human activities while ensuring appropriate support for species recovery:

• The Government of Ontario has issued 49 permits for Massasauga (Carolinian and Great Lakes – St. Lawrence population): Forty-three ‘protection or recovery’ permits were issued under clause 17(2)(b), and six ‘overall benefit’ permits were issued under clause 17(2)(c) of the ESA.
• Seventeen agreements were entered into for Massasauga (Carolinian and Great Lakes – St. Lawrence population). These agreements were enabled through Ontario Regulation 242/08 (prior to the July 1, 2013 amendment).
• One hundred and ninety-two activities have been registered for Massasauga (Carolinian and Great Lakes – St. Lawrence population). The activities were registered under ‘species protection, recovery activities’ (section 23.17), ‘threats to human health and safety, not imminent’ (section 23.18), ‘pits and quarries’ (Section 23.14), ‘drainage works’ (section 23.9), ‘ecosystem protection’ (section 23.11), ‘possession for educational purposes, etc.’ (section 23.15), and ‘transition – development ongoing when species first listed, etc.’ (section 23.13) under Ontario Regulation 242/08 of the ESA.

Reporting on the progress towards the protection and recovery of Massasauga (Carolinian and Great Lakes – St. Lawrence populations)  

The implementation of government-led and government-supported actions demonstrates progress towards reaching the desired objectives and the recovery goal set out in the GRS.

Progress towards implementing government-led actions

Progress has been made towards implementing all government-led actions identified in the GRS. Common actions for the government to lead as it works towards achieving a species’ recovery goal include:

• Continue to manage the habitat of Massasauga in provincially protected areas and monitor populations, where feasible.
• Educate other agencies and authorities involved in planning and environmental assessment processes on the protection requirements under the ESA.
• Encourage the submission of Massasauga (Carolinian and Great Lakes – St. Lawrence populations) data to Ontario’s central repository through the citizen science projects that they receive data from (e.g., Ontario Reptile and Amphibian Atlas, iNaturalist) and directly through the Natural Heritage Information Centre.
• Undertake communications and outreach activities to increase public awareness of species at risk in Ontario.
• Continue to protect Massasauga (Carolinian and Great Lakes – St. Lawrence populations) and its habitat through the ESA. Continue to implement, promote compliance with and enforce habitat protections using the species-specific habitat description for Massasauga.
• Support conservation, agency, municipal and industry partners, and Indigenous communities and organizations to undertake activities to protect and recover Massasauga (Carolinian and Great Lakes – St. Lawrence populations). Support will be provided where appropriate through funding, agreements, permits (including conditions) and/or advisory services.
• Encourage collaboration and establish and communicate annual priority actions for government support in order to reduce duplication of efforts.

The government of Ontario has undertaken two recent studies to investigate the potential threat of Ophidiomycosis (a disease caused by a fungal infection, formally called snake fungal disease) to Ontario snakes. Davy et al. (2021) conducted a review of Ophidiomycosis in snakes and surveyed Ontario snakes for the presence of the fungus that causes the disease. The study found evidence for the fungus being present in 10-18% of free ranging snakes in Ontario, but presence of the fungus did not lead to widespread mortality. None of the 83 Massasaugas that were tested from Eastern Georgian Bay and the Bruce Peninsula had lesions (symptom of Ophidiomycosis), but three tested positive for the fungus that causes Ophidiomycosis, suggesting the disease is not currently widespread in these populations. Another study led by PhD student Rachel Dillon published in 2022 quantified the prevalence of lesions and the fungus that causes Ophidiomycosis in snakes at Rondeau Provincial Park. The fungus was most frequently detected on Foxsnakes, and clinical signs of the disease peaked in spring and mostly resolved by the end of summer, suggesting that snakes enter hibernation in good body condition. Taken together, this research suggests that Ophidiomycosis is not a significant threat to Massasauga (Carolinian and Great Lakes – St. Lawrence populations) at the present time.

Additional progress made towards implementing government-led recovery actions is described in the following sections.

Guides and resources

Effective protection and recovery of species at risk and their habitat requires comprehensive and up-to-date knowledge of species’ occurrence and distribution. Many species at risk snakes are rare, occur at low densities and are difficult to detect. In response to the need for reliable, science-based survey methods for Ontario’s species at risk snakes, including the Massasauga, the Government of Ontario developed a Survey Protocol for Ontario’s Species at Risk Snakes in 2016.

The government of Ontario has also developed technical guidance documents to assist stakeholders in avoiding and mitigating potential threats to SAR snakes, including the Massasauga. These include “Best management practices for mitigating the effects of roads on amphibian and reptile species at risk in Ontario” and best management practices for installing and maintaining reptile and amphibian exclusion fencing.  

Occurrences and distribution

Massasauga (Great Lakes – St. Lawrence population)

In Ontario, the Massasauga (Great Lakes – St. Lawrence population) is relatively widespread and locally abundant along the eastern shore of Georgian Bay and on the Northern Bruce Peninsula. Given the species’ broad distribution throughout these regions, the species’ occurrence information has been assessed at a landscape scale using 10 by 10-kilometre grid “squares” to approximate the species’ distribution. The squares were used to estimate where the species has been recently observed (i.e., has been observed within the past 20 years) as well as squares where the species is considered historical^{footnote 1[1]}. The Massasauga (Great Lakes – St. Lawrence population) has been recently observed in 156 squares, and there 199 squares with historical observations of the species. Thirty-six of these squares with historical observations, all of which occur along the southern edge of the species’ distribution, represent locations where the species has been extirpated or is likely to have been extirpated. The remaining 163 squares with historical observations represent areas where the species may still be extant despite a lack of recent observations. This equates to a potential range^{footnote 2[2]} of approximately 15,600 square kilometres based on recent observations of the species, and an additional 19,900 square kilometres based on historical observations in areas where the species may still be extant.

The government’s central repository at the Natural Heritage Information Centre (NHIC) has received 12,726 records of Massasauga (Great Lakes – St. Lawrence population). These records are based on observations between 1880 and 2022 and come from a variety of sources. Since 2008, the NHIC has received 5,831 records of this species, almost doubling the total number of records in the provincial repository. These records have refined our knowledge of Massasauga (Great Lakes – St. Lawrence population) past and present distribution in Ontario, which helps inform protection and recovery efforts for this species. Based on records that have been received since 2008, the species’ presence has been re-confirmed in 40 squares that were identified as historical in 2008, and the species has been observed in 12 additional squares in which it was not previously known to occur. The identification of 12 squares in which the species was not previously known to occur likely does not represent an increase in the species distribution on the landscape, but rather increased knowledge about the distribution of the species based on recent search effort. Since 2008, nine squares have changed from extant to historical based on a lack of observations in the past 20 years. It is possible that the species persists in these nine squares despite the lack of recent occurrence records.

Massasauga (Carolinian population)

Eighteen subpopulations^{footnote 3[3]} of Massasauga (Carolinian population) have been documented in Ontario. However, only two of these are extant (i.e., the species has been observed within the past 20 years), while the remaining 16 have been extirpated. The extant populations occur in Wainfleet Bog on the Niagara Peninsula and the Ojibway Prairie complex in the City of Windsor and Town of Lasalle, both of which have a very restricted distribution.

The government’s central repository at the NHIC has received 949 records of Massasauga (Carolinian population). These records are based on observations between the 1960’s and 2022 and come from a variety of sources. Since 2008, the NHIC has received 459 records of this species. These records have refined our knowledge of Massasauga (Carolinian population) past and present distribution in Ontario, which helps inform protection and recovery efforts for this species. Based on records that have been received since 2008, the species’ presence has been re-confirmed at both extant subpopulations. However, researchers have failed to find^{footnote 4[4]} any individuals in the Ojibway Prairie subpopulation over the past three years (2020-2022) despite extensive search effort, suggesting that this subpopulation has become functionally extirpated.  

It is possible that there are observations of Massasauga (Carolinian and Great Lakes – St. Lawrence population) that have not been submitted to the government. Everyone is encouraged, or may be required by an authorization or approval to submit observations of Massasauga (Carolinian and Great Lakes – St. Lawrence populations), and any other species at risk observed, to the NHIC for incorporation into the provincial record of observations. Encouraging the submission of observations of this species is included in the GRS as a government-led action. Submission of species observations increases our knowledge of where they occur and plays an important role in assessing the viability of subpopulations and informing protection and recovery actions.

Massasauga (Carolinian population)

Massasauga (Great Lakes - St. Lawrence population)

Government-supported stewardship projects

An important government-led action in the GRS for Massasauga (Carolinian and Great Lakes – St. Lawrence populations) is to support partners to undertake activities to protect and recover the species. Through the Species at Risk Stewardship Program (SARSP) the government has supported 59 projects ($3,696,125) designed to contribute to the protection and recovery of multiple species at risk, including Massasauga (Carolinian and Great Lakes – St. Lawrence populations)^{footnote 5[5]} . Fifty-two of these projects ($2,849,287) were designed to provide benefits to multiple species at risk (e.g., landscape-level habitat restoration projects, outreach and education focusing on a certain group of species), five projects ($743,422) focused exclusively on Massasauga (Carolinian population) and two projects ($103,416) focussed exclusively on Massasauga (Great Lakes – St. Lawrence population). In addition to the government funding, partners reported they were successful in securing additional funding and in-kind support for projects that focussed exclusively on Massasauga (Carolinian population) ($1,208,256) and Massasauga (Great Lakes – St. Lawrence population) ($185,664), as did partners with projects designed to benefit multiple species at risk, including Massasauga (Carolinian and Great Lakes – St. Lawrence populations) ($4,496,926). The in-kind support includes both financial contributions and the estimated value of time and expertise provided by volunteers.

Stewardship partners reported that provincial funding helped them secure in-kind support by involving 466 individuals who volunteered 7,133 hours of their time towards protection and recovery activities that focused exclusively on Massasauga (Carolinian population) and 81 individuals who volunteered 824 hours of their time towards protection and recovery activities that focused exclusively on Massasauga (Great Lakes – St. Lawrence population), which has an estimated value of $138,115 and 15,322, respectively. As well, 1,925 individuals volunteered 23,838 hours of their time towards protection and recovery activities for multiple species at risk, including Massasauga (Carolinian and Great Lakes – St. Lawrence populations), which has an estimated value of $1,043,796.

Partners also reported that, through both their efforts and the efforts of their volunteers to implement GRS, they were successful in enhancing or managing over 800 hectares of habitat that will benefit multiple species at risk, including Massasauga (Carolinian population), as well as 0.5 ha that will benefit multiple species, including Massasauga (Great Lakes – St. Lawrence population). In addition, stewardship partners provided focused outreach on Massasauga (Carolinian population) to 7,216 individuals and on Massasauga (Great Lakes – St. Lawrence population) to 97,254 individuals, as well as outreach on multiple species, including Massasauga (Carolinian and Great Lakes – St. Lawrence populations) to 328,768 individuals.

The remainder of this section highlights two projects supported through the Species at Risk Stewardship Program that contribute to government-supported recovery actions for the species.

Recovery of the Massasauga (Carolinian population) at Ojibway Prairie

With annual support of the SARSP from 2013 to 2023, Wildlife Preservation Canada (WPC) has developed and implemented a comprehensive recovery program for the Massasauga (Carolinian population) at Ojibway Prairie, which has systematically begun addressing most GRS actions for this subpopulation. These efforts include a long-term survey and monitoring program for the Massasauga (Carolinian population) at the Ojibway Prairie, which has greatly refined our knowledge of the species’ local distribution and abundance. Unfortunately, this work demonstrated that the previously small and declining population continued to decline throughout the early years of monitoring and is now possibly extirpated, as no individuals have been observed since 2019. Thus, a core focus of WPC’s recovery efforts has been the establishment of a captive-breeding and release program to re-establish a viable, self-sustaining population of Massasaugas at Ojibway Prairie. To help facilitate this, WPC carried out research studies on hibernation habitat suitability, as well as snake overwinter survival to inform the selection of appropriate release sites. Due to a lack of availability of suitable captive-bred snakes, WPC helped to establish an Ontario-based captive breeding population in partnership with the Toronto Zoo, Scales Nature Park and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Massasauga Species Survival Program (SSP).  

To complement this population management work and increase the likelihood that the Ojibway Prairie can support a viable, self-sustaining population over the long-term, WPC, in collaboration with multiple partners, has been implementing a broad range of habitat management and restoration activities. For example, WPC and six partner organizations managed and restored an average of 29.2 ha of habitat annually throughout the Ojibway Prairie complex from 2015-19, with continued management and restoration activities occurring to-date. This work included the creation or improvement of over 200 woody debris structures, which greatly increased the amount of thermoregulation and gestation habitat available to the subpopulation. WPC’s habitat management efforts also included research on landscape-scale habitat availability and connectivity (Choquette et.al. 2020), which is helping to inform long-term habitat protection and management decisions. For example, it identified a 5 km-long hydro right of way that provides an important connectivity corridor for Massasaugas. Based on this work, WPC has established an ongoing partnership with Hydro One to improve habitat suitability within this right of way.

The identification and mitigation of local threats has also been an important part of WPC’s recovery efforts. For example, WPC has conducted long-term road mortality monitoring throughout the Ojibway Prairie Complex to identify road mortality hotspots where mitigation efforts should be focussed (Choquette and Valliant 2016). This information has informed the subsequent installation of eight wildlife crossing signs to inform motorists of the risks to snakes, as well as 783 m of permanent barrier fencing to help keep snakes off roads and guide them back toward natural areas. WPC has also been taking steps to address the threat of human-snake conflict by conducting research on this issue and using the results to inform solutions. These solutions have included the installation of educational signage in key locations (Choquette and Hand 2021), the design and distribution of thousands of outreach materials to park users and landowners, and the development of local program to assist local landowners who encounter Massasaugas on their property. 

Recovery of the Massasauga (Carolinian population) at Wainfleet Bog

With support from the SARSP from 2017 to 2022, 8Trees Inc. has implemented several important recovery actions for the Massasauga (Carolinian population) at Wainfleet Bog. This includes an intensive population monitoring program, which is a continuation of the long-term monitoring carried out by MNRF from 1998-2016. 8Trees Inc. staff have carried out annual surveys for Massasaugas in the bog employing a combination of visual pattern recognition software and pit tags (small microchips that are implanted below a snake’s skin) to identify and track the presence of individuals from year to year. Using these mark-recapture techniques, 8Trees staff have been able to estimate population abundance and long-term population trends. As part of their monitoring program, 8Trees Inc. also collected demographic information that addressed key knowledge gaps, including annual survival rates, litter size, and age of maturity. Using this information, 8Trees Inc. was able to complete a population viability analysis for this local subpopulation. This work has addressed several high priority GRS actions and has provided important information that will help to guide ongoing population management activities at Wainfleet Bog.

In addition to the monitoring program, 8Trees Inc. has also been conducting research to address key knowledge gaps and inform threat mitigation at Wainfleet Bog, including studies on hibernation habitat suitability and Massasauga tolerance to flooding. This research involved capturing neonates (newborn snakes), keeping them in captivity until it was time for them to enter hibernation, and then placing them in specially designed artificial hibernation tubes within hibernation habitat in the bog. This “assisted hibernation” methodology, which was developed by 8Trees Inc., allowed researchers to study hibernation behaviour and survival in the wild and has provided key insights into the suitability of hibernation sites at Wainfleet Bog. It has also led to the identification of large areas that function as “ecological traps” – areas that appear suitable to the snakes but that have a high likelihood of resulting in overwinter mortality. Researchers concluded that these “ecological traps” exist primarily due to local drainage activities and other anthropogenic influences on water levels, and that restoring the natural hydrology of the bog is key to the recovery of this local population. To this end, 8Trees Inc. has been working with the local municipality and other stakeholders to explore opportunities to restore the natural hydrology of the bog. This work has also been acting as an interim approach to help address this threat; the “assisted hibernation” approach has been forcing snakes to choose hibernation habitats that provide safe conditions for hibernation and, in turn, has increased hibernation survival rates from less than 20% to over 75%.

• 
  7

  projects for Massasauga (Carolinian and Great Lakes - St. Lawrence populations) exclusively

• 
  52

  projects including Massasauga (Carolinian and Great Lakes - St. Lawrence populations)

• 
  $2,849,287

  projects including Massasauga (Carolinian and Great Lakes - St. Lawrence populations)

• 
  $743,422

  for Massasauga (Carolinian populations) exclusively

• 
  $103,416

  for projects that included Massasauga (Great Lakes - St. Lawrence populations)

• 
  $5,890,846

  in additional funding and in-kind support

• 
  2,472

  volunteers

• 
  31,795

  volunteer hours

• 
  433,238

  people received outreach

• 
  801

  hectares of habitat enhanced

Supporting human activities while ensuring appropriate support for species recovery

Supporting partners through authorizations and their associated conditions is an important government-led action.

Forty-nine permits have been issued for Massasauga since the species has been protected under the ESA: 43 ‘protection or recovery’ (17(2)(b)) permits and six ‘overall benefit’ (17(2)(c)) permits.

‘Protection or recovery’ permits are issued if the purpose of the activity is to assist in the protection or recovery of a species at risk. Of the 43 ‘protection or recovery’ permits, 10 were issued exclusively for Massasauga prior to the separation of the species into the Carolinian and Great Lakes – St. Lawrence populations in 2014, while 12 were issued for multiple species including Massasauga prior to 2014. Following the separation of the Massasauga into two populations in 2014, five permits were issued exclusively for Massasauga (Carolinian population), two were issued for multiple species including Massasauga (Carolinian population), two were issued exclusively for Massasauga (Great Lakes – St. Lawrence population), and 12 were issued for multiple species, including Massasauga (Great Lakes – St. Lawrence population). These permits enabled a variety of stewardship partners and researchers to implement many of the recovery actions outlined in the GRS, including projects to restore, create and/or manage Massasauga habitat, survey and monitoring programs to fill knowledge gaps related to distribution and abundance, studying snake spatial ecology and habitat use, and assessing gene flow and habitat connectivity. Research was also carried out on overwintering strategies of neonatal snakes, the effectiveness of mitigation measures along roadways, and habitat enhancement and management techniques. Many individuals and organizations also engaged in education and outreach activities with the public to help reduce threats such as intentional persecution of snakes.

Six ‘overall benefit’ permits were issued for Massasauga. Of the six permits, one was issued for multiple species including Massasauga prior to its population being split in 2014, one was issued exclusively for Massasauga (Great Lakes – St. Lawrence population), three were issued for multiple species including Massasauga (Great Lakes – St. Lawrence population) and one was issues for multiple species, including Massasauga (Carolinian population). Several of the conditions included in the permits were designed to implement government-supported actions identified in the GRS for Massasauga, including:

• restoring or creating suitable open-canopy habitat for Massasauga by removing woody vegetation
• creating features such as gestation, hibernation and basking habitat for Massasauga and evaluating the effectiveness of these efforts
• developing targeted educational material and delivering outreach and awareness sessions for communities to increase knowledge of the species and reduce the threat of persecution

Other conditions designed to minimize adverse effects included:

• providing training and education about Massasauga to any person entering a project site, including how to identify the species, steps to take to avoid harming, harassing or killing Massasauga, as well as actions to be taken if an incidental encounter occurs
• installing temporary exclusion fencing to prevent Massasauga from entering a project site
• inspecting work areas and equipment daily prior to commencing work to ensure no Massasaugas are present
• having a designated trained person relocate any Massasaugas encountered within the site to a safe location and seeking medical attention for any injured or diseased individuals, if encountered

Seventeen drainage agreements were entered into for multiple species including Massasauga. These agreements were enabled through Ontario Regulation 242/08  (prior to the July 1, 2013 amendment). Conditions of the agreements involve implementing actions in the mitigation plan, including, but not limited to:

• conducting training related to the species and habitat identification, potential effects of the activity on the species and its habitat, and how to minimize adverse affects to the species and its habitat
• conducting a thorough search of the area to determine if any Massasaugas are present and, if an individual is detected, either cease all activities and allow the snake to disperse on its own or, depending on the circumstances, have a trained individual remove it from the premises
• recording and reporting any species at risk encountered within the project site to the Government of Ontario

Registration information

From 2013 to June 2014, seven activities that may affect Massasauga or its habitat were registered for the purposes of Ontario Regulation 242/08 under the ESA. Five of these activities were registered under ‘Species protection, recovery activities’ (section 23.17), one was registered under ‘threats to human health and safety, not imminent’ (section 23.18) and one was registered under ‘pits and quarries’ (section 23.14). These registrations enabled activities such as monitoring population demographics, distribution, and habitat use, studying the general biodiversity of an area and removing brush within Hydro rights-of-way.

Since June 2014, 36 activities that may affect Massasauga (Carolinian population) or its habitat have been registered for the purposes of Ontario Regulation 242/08 under the ESA. Twenty-four of these activities were registered under ‘Species protection, recovery activities’ (section 23.17), seven were registered under ‘drainage works’ (section 23.9), two were registered under ‘ecosystem protection’ (section 23.11), two were registered under ‘possession for educational purposes, etc.’ (section 23.15) and one was registered under ‘threats to human health and safety, not imminent’ (section 23.18). The registrations enabled activities such as implementation of a wide range of recovery actions for the Ojibway prairie subpopulation, providing outreach and education, habitat restoration, creation, and management activities, and monitoring subpopulations.

Additionally, 149 activities that may affect Massasauga (Great Lakes – St. Lawrence population) or its habitat have been registered for the purposes of Ontario Regulation 242/08 under the ESA since June 2014. Eighteen of these activities were registered under ‘species protection, recovery activities’ (section 23.17), 121 were registered under ‘threats to human health and safety, not imminent’ (section 23.18), five were registered under ‘ecosystem protection’ (section 23.11), three were registered under ‘transition – development ongoing when species first listed, etc.’ (section 23.13). One activity was registered under ‘pits and quarries’ (section 23.14) and one was registered under ‘possession for educational purposes, etc.’ (section 23.15). The registrations enabled several activities intended to contribute to the protection or recovery of the species, such as evaluating the effectiveness of ecopassages, monitoring subpopulations, and creation, restoration and management of Massasauga habitat. These registrations also enabled a wide range of other work in Massasauga habitat, such as allowing for road improvement work and removing hazardous trees, while still considering the protection and recovery needs of the species.

Conditional exemptions require the proponent to comply with all conditions of the regulation, such as:

• creating and implementing a mitigation plan developed by a species expert which includes steps to minimize adverse affects on the species and its habitat (e.g., establishing and maintaining a protective zone around habitat features such as a gestational site or hibernaculum);
• monitoring the effects of activities to the species at risk, and the effectiveness of steps taken to minimize adverse effects on these species; and,
• training employees and contractors to identify species at risk and their habitats.

Progress towards implementing government-supported actions

Government-supported actions are organized under overarching recovery objectives. Progress has been made towards achieving all government-supported recovery objectives and implementing all of the associated actions identified in the GRS for Massasauga (Carolinian and Great Lakes – St. Lawrence populations).

Under this objective, considerable progress has been made towards implementing Action No. 1, while initial progress has been made towards Actions No. 2 and 3.

Considerable progress has been made toward the first action through the combined efforts of several individuals and organizations, including two long-term projects supported by the Species at Risk Stewardship Program (SARSP). Since 2013, Wildlife Preservation Canada (WPC) has been working to manage, restore and create habitat for the Massasauga (Carolinian population) Ojibway Prairie subpopulation. These efforts have included:

• research on habitat connectivity (Choquette et al. 2020), road mortality (Choquette and Valliant 2016), and hibernation habitat suitability within the Ojibway Prairie complex, which is informing ongoing habitat management for Massasauga (Carolinian population) and other at-risk reptiles
• creation, restoration, and management of Massasauga habitat (Carolinian population) throughout the Ojibway Prairie complex, including removal of invasive vegetation to maintain open habitat, as well as the creation or improvement of over 200 woody debris structures to provide thermoregulation and gestation habitat
• working collaboratively with local stakeholders to establish a habitat connectivity plan linking key parcels of habitat

Similarly, with support from SARSP, 8Trees Inc. has been managing, restoring and creating habitat across more than 700 ha to support recovery of the Massasauga (Carolinian population) at Wainfleet Bog. This work has included strategic collaboration with local partners and stakeholders to manage water levels in the bog to maintain suitable hibernation conditions during the overwintering period, removal of woody vegetation to maintain open habitat for thermoregulation, and research into hibernation habitat suitability to inform ongoing management.   

WPC’s research on habitat availability and connectivity has also made initial progress towards Action No. 2 by identifying key focus areas for future habitat securement and protection work. This included the identification of a 5 km-long (43 ha) habitat corridor that facilitates movement through the Ojibway Prairie, followed by the establishment of a partnership with the land manager to improve connectivity of this corridor for species at risk snakes. Further to this, through WPC’s efforts, the 24 km² Ojibway Prairie Complex and Greater Park Ecosystem was designated as a Canadian ‘Important Amphibian and Reptile Area’ in 2016, which helps to draw attention to the importance of this area and foster support for future habitat protection.

Several SARSP-supported projects have also contributed initial progress toward Action No. 3 through a variety of activities to manage and create habitat for species at risk snakes, including Massasauga (Great Lakes – St. Lawrence population). However, most of these efforts have occurred primarily at a local scale, and broader landscape-scale initiatives are required to fully implement this action.

Under this objective, considerable progress has been made towards implementing Action No. 4, moderate progress has been made towards implementing Actions No. 6 and 7, and initial progress has been made toward Actions No. 5 and 8.

Through extensive research and monitoring efforts at both Ojibway Prairie and Wainfleet Bog, stewardship partners have made significant progress towards the implementation of Action No. 4. Specifically, both WPC and 8Trees Inc. have been conducting research on habitat suitability and overwinter survival at Ojibway Prairie and Wainfleet Bog, respectively. In addition, WPC has undertaken in-depth assessments of Massasauga habitat availability and connectivity at Ojibway Prairie, while ongoing monitoring at Wainfleet bog has been providing critical information on local habitat requirements.

Several recent studies have provided information on the scale and potential effects of some of the key threats to Massasauga (Carolinian and Great Lakes – St. Lawrence populations) (Action No. 5). For example, two research studies (see government-led actions) have investigated the scale and potential effects of Ophidiomycosis on Ontario’s snakes, including Massasauga. These studies have provided evidence to suggest that the disease caused by this fungus does not pose a significant, widespread threat to the Massasauga in Ontario at the present time. However, ongoing research is necessary to monitor this threat, particularly in cases where multiple stressors may compromise the natural resilience of subpopulations. Several research and monitoring studies have also investigated the effects of roads on species at risk snakes, including the Massasauga, in recent years. These include a road mortality monitoring program carried out by the Georgian Bay Turtle Hospital in the southeastern portion of the Massasauga (Great Lakes – St. Lawrence population)’s range, research on the effects of roads on population viability in Killbear Provincial Park, and a road mortality monitoring program in Ojibway Prairie. Although this work has provided some information on the scale and magnitude of these threats, there remain major knowledge gaps related to the effects of roads on subpopulation viability over the long-term. Research on other threats, including the effects of climate change and forest management activities, is still required to fill key knowledge gaps and inform threat mitigation and recovery approaches. 

Progress toward Action No. 6. Has been made through the establishment of several local monitoring programs, as well as efforts on the part of multiple SARSP recipients to encourage reporting of Massasauga (Carolinian and Great Lakes – St. Lawrence populations) occurrence data. With support from the SARSP, WPC established an ongoing population monitoring program for the Massasauga (Carolinian population) at the Ojibway Prairie in 2013. Another SARSP recipient, 8Trees Inc., has received support through the SARSP to monitor Massasauga (Carolinian population) at Wainfleet bog, which is a long-term monitoring program that has been ongoing for over two decades. Population monitoring efforts have been underway for the Massasauga (Great Lakes – St. Lawrence population) at Killbear Provincial Park for many years. These monitoring programs have provided crucial information on species habitat use, biology and demographics, population trends, the effects of ongoing threats, and the effectiveness of recovery efforts. The continuation of these programs over the long-term is essential for informing ongoing management and recovery planning for these populations.

Progress toward action No. 7 has been made through the collection of demographic data as part of the above-mentioned monitoring programs at Ojibway Prairie and Wainfleet Bog, as well as through a literature review conducted by WPC on Massasauga demographics, survival rates and minimum viable population sizes.

Several First Nation communities throughout the range of the Massasauga (Carolinian and Great Lakes – St. Lawrence populations) have undertaken their own projects to benefit species at risk, including the Massasauga. For example, the community of Magnetawan First Nation, which have stewarded the land from time immemorial and have a deep respect for the Massasauga, initiated a Species at Risk Program in 2011 with funds from the Aboriginal Fund for Species at Risk and in partnership with Laurentian University. Their Species at Risk Program - which is operated by their Department of Lands, Resources, and the Environment - focuses on conducting extensive monitoring, research and threat mitigation activities for the Massasauga and other reptiles at risk on Magnetawan First Nation lands and Traditional Territory. Magnetawan First Nation has also been hosting an annual Lands and Resource Management Conference since 2015 to promote the sharing and transfer of knowledge, Traditional Ecological Knowledge, and technical expertise on species at risk, including the Massasauga, between First Nations, universities, government agencies and environmental organizations. These efforts have increased knowledge and respect of the Massasauga which supports ongoing and future recovery efforts across this species’ range. 

Initial progress has been made towards implementing all of the actions under this objective.

Progress toward action No. 9 has been made through the efforts of several organizations that have been developing, implementing, and evaluating best management practices (BMPs) to reduce the impacts of threats to species at risk reptiles, including the Massasauga (Carolinian and Great Lakes – St. Lawrence populations). For example, the Georgian Bay Biosphere (GBB; formerly Georgian Bay Biosphere Reserve) received support through the SARSP from 2007 to 2018, inclusive, to carry out projects aimed at reducing threats to species at risk reptiles, including the Massasauga, in the Eastern Georgian Bay region. This included developing outreach materials to educate and engage the public in species at risk conservation; targeted outreach and training for landowners to foster engagement in species at risk stewardship and protection; and developing tools for municipalities to assist them with incorporating threat mitigation BMPs into their operations, such as a habitat screening tool and BMPs for mitigating reptile road mortality.

With support from the SARSP, several partners have contributed to the implementation of action No. 10 by developing and sharing social media content aimed at promoting Massasauga (Carolinian and Great Lakes – St. Lawrence populations) and its recovery. These projects have included the development of educational videos, as well as social media campaigns highlighting the Massasauga, its status and threats, and ways that people can contribute to recovery. Additional efforts are required to fully implement this action, including a renewed focus on social marketing approaches—an area in which there has been little progress to date.

Progress toward action No. 11 has been made through a variety of recent projects, including several that were supported through the SARSP. These projects involved broad education and outreach programs, such as the Scales Nature Park “Reptiles at Risk on the Road” program, which have played an important role in promoting public awareness of Massasauga (Carolinian and Great Lakes – St. Lawrence populations), including its status, threats and how to safely co-exist with this species. Efforts to mitigate human-snake conflict have also included the installation of signs about Massasauga (Carolinian population) at tailheads within the range of Ojibway Prairie subpopulation (Choquette and Hand 2021), the creation and distribution of targeted educational materials about the Massasauga (Great Lakes – St. Lawrence population) by several organizations within the Eastern Georgian Bay region, and the establishment of a “snake hotline” to help manage human-snake conflict and encourage reporting of Massasauga (Great Lakes – St. Lawrence population) occurrences within the southern portion of the Eastern Georgian bay region.

Under this objective, moderate progress has been made towards implementing Actions No. 12 and 13.

Progress toward action No. 12 has been achieved largely through the development and implementation of a comprehensive recovery program for the Massasauga (Carolinian population) Ojibway Prairie subpopulation by WPC and several partner agencies and organizations. This program, which was initiated in 2013, has included research, monitoring, habitat management and creation, threat mitigation, landowner education, stakeholder engagement, and the establishment of a captive-breeding and release program. This important work has been supported through the SARSP from 2013 to 2023 and is ongoing. The captive-breeding population needed to support population management of the Ojibway subpopulation was established in partnership with the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Massasauga Species Survival Program (SSP), the Toronto Zoo and Scales Nature Park. This collaborative approach with the IUCN SSP has helped to ensure that this program is being informed by the best available information on Massasauga husbandry and captive care, and it will also enable this ex-situ work to feed into national and global Massasauga conservation priorities over the long term. In addition to establishing a captive-breeding and release program, WPC has also conducted field research on Massasauga hibernation habitat suitability and overwinter survival, and assessments of habitat availability and connectivity (Choquette et al. 2020) and suitable translocation techniques (Choquette et al. 2022) to inform the selection of suitable release sites. In addition, WPC and partners have been managing and creating habitat and mitigating local threats to help ensure that released individuals will have the highest possible chance of survival, with the goal of establishing a viable, self-sustaining population over the long term.  

Similarly, 8Trees Inc. has made significant contributions to the implementation of Action No. 13 through their long-term Massasauga (Carolinian population) recovery program at Wainfleet Bog. 8Trees Inc.’s recovery program for the Wainfleet subpopulation includes research, monitoring, habitat management and creation, threat mitigation, stakeholder engagement, and population management. Anne Yagi, President of 8Trees Inc., has developed a novel method of “assisted hibernation” to study snake overwinter survival, assess the effectiveness of managed and created hibernation habitat, and help young snakes imprint on optimal hibernation sites. This work has been especially beneficial at Wainfleet Bog, where large portions of the bog act as mortality sinks during hibernation due to anthropogenically altered and fluctuating water levels. The efforts by 8Trees Inc. have resulted in a significant increase in overwinter survival and appear to have reversed the declining trend of this subpopulation; however, these positive trends may be short-lived without ongoing protection and recovery efforts.

Summary of progress towards meeting the recovery goal

The recovery goal for Massasauga (Carolinian population) is to increase the likelihood of securing and maintaining the current regional distribution of the species in Southern Ontario. The government supports the implementation of population management actions (e.g., augmentation through captive-breeding and release), and associated evaluation and adaptation, at the Ojibway Prairie Complex. The government supports continued investigation, evaluation and if appropriate, implementation of population management actions (e.g., head-starting) for the Wainfleet Bog subpopulation.

The recovery goal for Massasauga (Great Lakes – St. Lawrence population) is to maintain self-sustaining populations across the current distribution of the species through strategic habitat management (including connectivity) and threat mitigation.

Effort made towards the government-led and government-supported actions, which are discussed in detail in the previous sections, has helped to make progress towards these goals. For example, the comprehensive recovery programs being let by WPC and 8Trees Inc. for the Massasauga (Carolinian population) at Ojibway Prairie and Wainfleet Bog, respectively, have made considerable progress towards several high priority actions that are urgently required to support the recovery of these subpopulations. In the case of the Massasauga (Great Lakes – St. Lawrence population), many individuals and organizations across the species’ range have been contributing to the implementation of recovery actions, including habitat management, targeted threat mitigation, outreach and education, and the engagement of stakeholders and landowners in species recovery. Since 2008, our understanding of the species’ distribution and status has also greatly improved. This has been achieved through extensive survey effort across the range of the Massasauga (Great Lakes – St. Lawrence population), facilitated through programs such as Ontario Nature’s Ontario Reptile and Amphibian Atlas, as well as intensive monitoring by SARSP partners at both sites where the Massasauga (Carolinian population) occurs. This information has been crucial in informing ongoing recovery work, including subpopulation viability assessments and the implementation of intensive population management of the Massasauga (Carolinian population).

Recommendations

As stated in the GRS, this review of progress can be used to help identify whether adjustments to the implementation of GRS actions are needed, to achieve the protection and recovery of the species. Based on progress to date, the overall direction provided in the GRS for Massasauga (Carolinian and Great Lakes – St. Lawrence populations), particularly the implementation of actions identified as high priority, should continue to guide protection and recovery of the species.

Initial progress has been made towards GRS Actions No. 2, 3, 5, 8, 9, 10, and 11, but substantial work is required to fully implement these actions. For example, despite the efforts of several stewardship partners to develop and implement BMPs to help reduce threats to the Massasauga (Carolinian and Great Lakes – St. Lawrence populations) (Action No. 9), several threats remain widespread and pervasive. Specifically, the death of snakes on the province’s vast road network continues to result in increased mortality across much of the species’ range and is contributing to ongoing declines, which presents a significant conservation challenge. In the case of the Wainfleet Bog subpopulation, the ongoing threat of anthropogenically-induced water level fluctuations continues to pose a risk of mass mortality during hibernation and threatens the long-term viability of this subpopulation until water levels are returned to natural conditions. Additional collaborative efforts between government, non-government organizations, researchers, stakeholders, and the public are necessary to develop and implement innovative and effective solutions to mitigate such threats at both local and landscape scales.

While moderate to considerable progress has been made towards GRS Actions No. 1, 4, 6, 7, 12 and 13, further work is still required to fully implement each of these actions. With the Ojibway Prairie subpopulation being functionally extirpated, ongoing implementation of population management approaches (Action No. 12), including a captive-breeding and release program, is essential to achieve the recovery goal for Massasauga (Carolinian population). At Wainfleet Bog, continued population management activities (Action No. 13) are  required to prevent further decline and maintain the viability of that subpopulation until major threats, including anthropogenically-altered water levels, have been effectively addressed. In areas where habitat has been created and enhanced (Action No. 1), ongoing habitat management will be necessary to maintain these habitats over the long-term, such as controlling woody vegetation to maintain open-canopy conditions for Massasauga (Carolinian population). Continued research on the habitat needs of Massasauga (Carolinian population) (Action No. 4) will also be required over the long-term to inform an adaptive management approach, particularly with respect to assessing the effectiveness of habitat management and creation work. Despite considerable progress on the implementation of monitoring programs for the Massasauga (Carolinian population) (Action No. 6), the establishment of additional monitoring programs at representative sites across the range of the Massasauga (Great Lakes – St. Lawrence population) is required to provide representative information for this population.  

Protecting and recovering Massasauga (Carolinian and Great Lakes – St. Lawrence populations) will continue to be a shared responsibility that will require the involvement of many individuals, organizations and communities. Financial support for the implementation of actions may be available through the Species at Risk Stewardship Program. The government can also advise if any authorizations under the ESA or other legislation may be required to undertake a project. By working together, progress can continue to be made towards protecting and recovering Massasauga (Carolinian and Great Lakes – St. Lawrence populations) in Ontario.

References

Choquette, J.D., M.R Macpherson and R.C. Corry. 2020. Identifying Potential Connectivity for an Urban Population of Rattlesnakes (Sistrurus catenatus) in a Canadian Park System. Land 2020, 9(9), 313; https://doi.org/10.3390/land9090313

Choquette, J.D. and A.V. Hand. 2021. Informational signage increases awareness of a rattlesnake in a Canadian urban park system. Human–Wildlife Interactions 15(1): Article 18. https://doi.org/10.26077/9e24-0dc5

Choquette, J.D., J.D. Litzgus, J.X.Y. Guy and T.E. Pitcher. 2022. A systematic review of snake translocations to identify potential tactics for reducing post release effects. Conservation Biology. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.14016

Choquette, J.D. and L. Valliant. 2016. Road Mortality of Reptiles and Other Wildlife at the Ojibway Prairie Complex and Greater Park Ecosystem in Southern Ontario. Canadian Field Naturalist 130(1):64. https://doi.org/10.22621/cfn.v130i1.1804

Davy, C.M. L. Shirose, D. Campbell, R. Dillon, C. McKenzie, N. Nemeth, T. Braithwaite, H. Cai, T. Degazio, T. Dobbie, S. Egan, H. Fotherby, J.D. Litzgus, P. Manorome, S. Marks, J.E. Paterson, L. Sigler, D. Slavic, E. Slavik, J. Urquhart, and C. Jardine. 2021. Revisiting Ophidiomycosis (Snake Fungal Disease) after a decade of targeted research. Frontiers in Veterinary Science.  Wildlife Research and Monitoring 8: https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2021.665805

Dillon, R.M., J.E. Paterson, P. Manorome, K. Ritchie, L. Shirose, E. Slavik, and C.M. Davy. 2022. Seasonal and interspecific variation in the presence of Ophidiomyces ophidiicola and Ophodiomycosis in a community of free-ranging snakes. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 58(4): 791–802. https://doi.org/10.7589/JWD-D-21-00134