Annex A: Radiological incidents described

(Ref: Paragraph 1.2.2)

1.0 Nuclear establishments

1.1 Nuclear Establishments described:

• A nuclear establishment is a facility that uses, produces, processes, reprocesses, stores or disposes of a nuclear substance (as defined in the federal Nuclear Safety and Control Act), but does not include a nuclear installation.
• The following types of facilities may be nuclear establishments under the above definition:
  1. Academic and research laboratories;
  2. Hospitals and medical institutes;
  3. Industrial plants;
  4. Uranium mines;
  5. Processing, reprocessing or separation plants for nuclear substances;
  6. Nuclear fuel fabrication plants;
  7. Nuclear waste disposal and storage sites; and
  8. Construction companies.

1.2 Accidents at Nuclear Establishments:

The following are some of the types of accidents that could occur at a nuclear establishment, and would be covered by this plan:

1. Missing radioactive source;
2. Dispersion of radioactive material;
3. Natural, flammable, destructive or other phenomena that have or could have affected the control over and/or the integrity of a radioactive source (e.g., fire, explosion, earthquake, tornado, flood, etc.);
4. Discovery of significant radioactive contamination within the facility; and
5. Discovery of high radiation fields within the facility.

1.3 Types of Hazards:

The following are the main types of offsite hazard that could arise from the accidents listed above:

1. Direct radiation exposure to persons who handle a radioactive source or come in its vicinity could occur if the radioactive source leaves the premises of the establishment. An accident at a nuclear establishment could also be the source for the spread of contamination.
2. The spread of radioactive contamination offsite from the establishment, even though the radioactive source remains onsite.

2.0 Transportation accidents

2.1 Transportation Regulatory Controls and Guidance:

• The Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission (CNSC) is responsible for regulating the packaging of radioactive material for transport under the Packaging and Transport of Nuclear Substances Regulations.
• Transport Canada is responsible for regulating the transport of dangerous goods under the Transportation of Dangerous Goods Regulations.
• Transport Canada, in conjunction with its counterparts in the USA, Mexico and Argentina, has published the 2008 Emergency Response Guidebook (ERG2008). This is a guide to aid first responders (fire, police, EMS) in the immediate measures to be taken to deal with a transportation accident involving hazardous material. Guide No. 161 - 166 deal with transportation emergencies involving radioactive substances.
• Transport Canada also operates the Canadian Transport Emergency Centre (CANUTEC), which is a facility that operates on a 7-day/24-hour basis, and can provide technical advice, information and assistance (by telecommunication) on dealing with transportation accidents involving hazardous goods. Transporters are required to inform CANUTEC whenever an accident involving radioactive material occurs.

2.2 Types of Accidents and Hazards:

• If the package containing the radioactive material remains intact, then the hazard is minimal. The only response required is to control access to the site of the accident until qualified personnel retrieve the package.
• If the package is damaged in the accident, the following hazards may arise:
  1. There may be radiation fields in the vicinity of the source or parts of it;
  2. Radioactive contamination may have spread, or may start to spread;
  3. Early responders to the accident may have been exposed to high radiation fields.
• Early responders to the accident may have been contaminated, and they and their equipment may spread the contamination further.

3.0 Satellite re-entry

3.1 Typical Accidents:

• Some satellites carry nuclear reactors (using highly enriched uranium-235) to provide internal power. Some others carry radioisotope thermoelectric generators, generally using plutonium-238.
• If one of these satellites were to malfunction and make an unplanned re-entry into the earth's atmosphere, it could result in the deposition of radioactive material on earth. This deposition would be along the re-entry path of the vehicle, forming what is called a footprint. This footprint can be very long, its length and width depending on the conditions of the re-entry^{footnote *[*]}.
• Another complication is that the expected location of the footprint is difficult to determine until the re-entry into the atmosphere actually takes place. Even then, there will be considerable uncertainty as to the beginning and end of the debris path along the ground-projected trajectory of the space vehicle or its parts.

3.2 Typical Hazards:

The crash of a space vehicle carrying radioactive material could create one or more of the following hazards:

• External radiation from deposited debris. This would vary depending on the degree of radioactivity emitted by the item, and exposure conditions (distance, period of exposure, etc.). The deposition of small particles from the atmosphere may continue for some hours after re-entry.
• Internal radiation from inhaled material. The most dangerous would be plutonium or other alpha emitters, usually contained in radioisotope thermoelectric generators.
• Internal radiation from ingested material. Contamination of foodstuffs and water may cause this.

4.0 Radiological Dispersal Devices (RDD)

4.1 RDD Described:

• Radiological Dispersal Devices (RDDs) can be constructed by combining a conventional bomb with radioactive material thereby causing radiological materials to be dispersed upon explosion. These devices are not as destructive as a nuclear explosion involving the fission or fusion processes and, therefore, can only scatter a limited quantity of harmful radioactive material over a very limited area.
• A RDD will initially appear as a conventional bomb attack by terrorists, until such time as it is verified through radiation monitoring carried out by the first responders.
• Although the most likely dispersal of radioactive material is thought to be through an explosive device, the same effect could also be achieved by other means, such as liquid-spraying aircrafts or via ventilation systems of large complexes. In the worst case scenario, terrorists may use multiple devices or a combination of real and hoax incidents.

4.2 Hazards and Consequences:

• The immediate hazard of an RDD is the physical damage to property and human life caused by the conventional component of the device coupled with the radiation exposure of victims due to scattered radioactive material. The explosion from an RDD will contain a large amount of dust and debris and a relatively small amount of very fine particles. Only these fine particles can travel beyond the blast zone of an explosive and may carry some radioactivity with them.
• The physical damage caused to human life and property will be primarily due to the conventional explosive component of RDD. The short term physical effects caused by the radioactive material will be less significant but the psychological effects will be considerable.
• Residual hazards may be caused due to downwind fallout of radioactive material, inadvertent cross contamination and the use of affected infrastructure prior to proper decontamination.

5.0 Radiological Devices (RDs)

5.1 RDs Described:

• Radiological Devices (RDs) could be lost or stolen radioactive sources which may be in locations resulting in radiation exposure and/or contamination of the public, contamination of a site and/or contamination of food and water supplies.
• Depending on the size, location and intensity of the RD, it could be detected either through periodic monitoring of likely locations or, ultimately, once members of the public in its proximity begin to fall ill.

5.2 Hazards and Consequences:

• Symptoms may include reddening of the skin or a burn-like injury. In some cases nausea, vomiting or diarrhea could occur.
• The socio-economic and psychological disruptions caused by such incidents may linger on for quite some time and may require a very concerted recovery effort.

6.0 Nuclear weapon detonation

6.1 Nuclear Weapon Detonation Described:

• Detonation of a nuclear weapon would most likely result from a terrorist or malevolent attack using a low yield nuclear weapon or suitcase bomb.

6.2 Hazards and Consequences:

• A high radioactive burst as well as a bomb blast would result in widespread death, injury and destruction as well as contamination.
• The injuries would include burns, blast injury and trauma, contamination, radiation exposure, and psychological trauma.
• Major economic consequences would result from disruptions to communications, electricity supply, transportation systems, etc.